1. DNA/RNA Structure & Replication
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Structure of DNA and RNA (nucleotides, base pairing, helical forms).
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Replication mechanisms in prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes.
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Roles of DNA polymerases, primase, helicase, ligase, telomerase.
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Differences in origin of replication, replication fork, and Okazaki fragments.
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Mechanisms ensuring replication fidelity.
2. Gene Regulation
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Prokaryotic regulation: lac operon, trp operon.
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Eukaryotic regulation: transcription factors, enhancers, silencers, chromatin remodeling.
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Epigenetic regulation: DNA methylation, histone modifications.
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Post-transcriptional and post-translational regulation.
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Real examples: environmental response (bacteria) and developmental regulation (eukaryotes).
3. Mutations & Repair
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Types of mutations: point, frameshift, nonsense, missense, chromosomal.
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Causes: spontaneous vs. induced.
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DNA repair systems: mismatch repair, base excision, nucleotide excision, homologous recombination, non-homologous end joining.
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Genetic disorders linked to repair defects (e.g., xeroderma pigmentosum, Lynch syndrome).
4. Transcription & Translation
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Transcription process: initiation, elongation, termination.
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RNA processing: capping, splicing, polyadenylation.
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Translation steps: initiation, elongation, termination, ribosome structure.
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Post-transcriptional regulation: RNA interference, alternative splicing, RNA editing.
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Significance in controlling gene expression and protein diversity.
5. Genetic Technologies
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PCR: principle, applications, limitations.
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Cloning vectors and expression systems.
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CRISPR-Cas9: mechanism, applications in gene editing.
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DNA sequencing technologies (Sanger, next-generation).
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Real-world applications in diagnostics, therapy, and research.
6. Transcriptomics & Proteomics
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Transcriptomics: RNA-seq, microarrays, expression profiling.
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Proteomics: 2D gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry, protein-protein interaction studies.
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Limitations (e.g., transcript ≠ protein abundance).
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Case studies: cancer biomarker discovery, personalized medicine.
7. Cancer Genetics
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Oncogenes vs. tumor suppressor genes.
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Hallmarks of cancer: uncontrolled growth, evading apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis.
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Role of mutations, chromosomal instability, and epigenetics in cancer.
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Specific examples: BRCA1/2 in breast cancer, p53 mutations, RAS oncogenes.
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Molecular pathology techniques for cancer detection.
8. Population Genetics
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Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium and its assumptions.
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Genetic variation: SNPs, polymorphisms, haplotypes.
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Forces shaping variation: mutation, selection, genetic drift, migration.
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Applications in human disease studies and evolutionary genetics.
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Case examples: sickle cell anemia and malaria resistance.
9. Applications & Ethics
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Gene therapy: strategies, successes, risks.
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GMOs in agriculture and medicine.
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Personalized medicine based on genetic testing.
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Ethical debates: genetic privacy, designer babies, germline editing.
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International guidelines and bioethics frameworks.
